Nutrition

Introduction

Water

Although not a nutrient per se, water is essential to the body for the maintenance of intracellular and extra cellular fluids. It is the medium in which digestion and absorption take place, nutrients are transported to cells and metabolic waste products are removed. The quality of water provided to reptiles should be of utmost concern. Water and “soft foods” (foods containing >20% moisture) are frequently implicated in exposures to high concentrations of bacteria. An open water container that becomes contaminated with fecal material or food will promote rapid bacterial proliferation. In water containing added vitamins, there can be a 100-fold increase in the bacterial count in 24 hours. Changing the water and rinsing the container will obviously decrease the bacterial load, but an active biofilm remains on the container walls unless it is disinfected or washed thoroughly. Contamination in the water container, in addition to the aqueous medium and compatible environmental temperatures, provide all the requirements for microorganisms to thrive. Likewise, high-moisture foods such as canned foods, paste foods, sprouts, fruits and vegetables provide excellent growth media for microorganisms. At warm environmental temperatures, these types of foods can become contaminated in as little as four hours. Water intake will be greatly influenced by the type of diet provided. Most reptiles can derive the majority of their water requirement from foodstuffs when the diet consists primarily of fruits, vegetables or moist foods. Processed diets tend to increase the reptile’s water intake because they generally are dry, lower in fat and tend to have overall higher nutrient levels. Slightly moister feces are often observed in reptiles on a formulated diet.

Protein

Fibrous or structural proteins

Collagen

The protein collagen is the most important building block in the entire animal world. More than a third of the reptile's protein is collagen and makes up 75% of the skin. It controls cell shape and differentiation.
Collagen is the fibrous protein constituent of skin, cartilage, bone, and other connective tissue.

Vitamin C is required for the production and maintenance of collagen, a protein substance that forms the base of connective tissues in the body such as bones, teeth, skin, and tendons. Collagen is the protein that helps heal wounds, mend fractures, and support capillaries in order to prevent bruises.

Keratin

Keratin produces strong and elastic tissue, the protein responsible for forming scales and claws in reptiles. These scales protect the reptile body from the effects of both water and sun, and prevent them from drying out.

Elastin

Elastin is the structural protein that gives elasticity to the tissues and organs. Elastin is
found predominantly in the walls of arteries, in the lungs, intestines, and skin, as well as in other elastic tissues. It functions in connective tissue in partnership with collagen. Whereas collagen provides rigidity, elastin is the protein, which allows the connective tissues in blood vessels and heart tissues, for example, to stretch and then recoil to their original positions.

Globular proteins

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin is the respiratory pigment found in the red blood. It is produced in the bone marrow and carries oxygen from the lungs to the body. An inadequate amount of circulating hemoglobin results in a condition called anemia.

Myoglobin

Myoglobin is close related to hemoglobin. It transports oxygen to the muscle tissues. It is a small, bright red protein which function is to store an oxygen molecule (O₂), which is released during periods of oxygen deprivation, when the muscles are hard at work.

Albumin

Albumins are widely distributed in plant and animal tissues, e.g., ovalbumin of egg, lactalbumin of milk, and leucosin of wheat. Some contain carbohydrates. Normally constituting about 55% of the plasma proteins, albumins adhere chemically to various substances in the blood, e.g., amino acids, and thus play a role in their transport. Albumins and other blood proteins aid in regulating the distribution of water in the body.

Actin & myosin

Actin is found in the muscle tissue together with myosin where they interact to make muscle contraction possible. Actin and myosin are also found in all cells to bring about cell movement.

Ferritin

Ferritin is found predominantly in the tissue of the liver, used for the storage of iron.

Transferrin

Binds with iron and transports it for storage in the liver, or to bone marrow, where it is used for the formation of hemoglobin.

Ferredoxin

Ferredoxin acts as a transport protein for electrons involved in photosynthesis.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates supply a reptile with the energy it needs to function. They are found almost exclusively in plant foods, such as fruits, vegetables, peas, and beans. Milk and milk products are the only foods derived from animals that contain a significant amount of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are divided into two groups, simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the main source of blood glucose, which is a major fuel for all of the cells and the only source of energy for the brain and red blood cells. Except for fibre, which cannot be digested, both simple and complex carbohydrates are converted into glucose. The glucose is then either used directly to provide energy, or stored in the liver for future use. Carbohydrates take less oxygen to metabolize than protein or fat.

Simple carbohydrates (monosaccharide)

Simple carbohydrates, include fructose, sucrose, and glucose, as well as several other sugars. Fruits are one of the richest natural sources of simple carbohydrates.
Simple carbohydrates are the main source of blood glucose, which is a major energy source and the only for the brain and red blood cells. When a reptile consumes more single carbohydrates than it uses, a portion may be stored as fat.

Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharide)

Complex carbohydrates are also made up of sugars, but the sugar molecules are strung together to form longer, more complex chains. Complex carbohydrates include fibre, cellulose, starch, glycogen, etc.

Glycogen

Glycogen occurs in animal tissues, especially in the liver and muscle cells. It is the major store of carbohydrate energy in animal cells.
The liver removes glucose from the blood when blood glucose levels are high. Through a process called glycogenesis, the liver combines the glucose molecules in long chains to create glycogen. When the amount of glucose in the blood falls below the level required, the liver reverses this reaction, transforming glycogen into glucose.

Starch

Starch consists of two glucose polymers, amylose and amylopectin. It occurs widely in plants, especially in roots, seeds, and fruits, as a carbohydrate energy store. Starch is therefore a major energy source, when digested it ultimately yields glucose.

Fibre

Dietary fibre is the part of plants and insects that are resistant to digestive enzymes. As a result, only a relatively small amount of fibre is digested or metabolized in the stomach or intestines. Instead, most of it moves through the gastrointestinal tract and ends up in the faeces.
Although most fibre is not digested, it delivers several important benefits. Fibre retains water, resulting in softer and bulkier faeces that prevent constipation and, fibre binds with certain and eliminates these substances from the body. Dietary fibre falls into four groups: celluloses, hemicelluloses, lignins, and pectins.

Cellulose

Cellulose is the major substance of the cell wall of all plants, algae and some fungi. With some exceptions among insects (see chitin), true cellulose is not found in animal tissues.

Chitin (Chitosan)

Chitin, a form of cellulose, naturally occurs in the exoskeleton of insects. It speeds the transit of foods through the digestive system and promotes the growth of beneficial bacteria in the intestines. Chitin can thereby improve digestion, cleanse the colon, and prevent diarrhea and constipation. Chitin is known to differ from other polysaccharides in that it has a strong positive charge that lets it chemically bond with fats. Because it is mostly indigestible, it can then prevent lipids from being absorbed in the digestive tract. Chitosan is derivative from chitin, more soluble in water.

Fat

Amino acids

Essential Amino Acids

Arginine

Arginine is an amino acid which becomes an essential amino acid when under stress or is in an injured state. Depressed growth results from lack of dietary arginine.
Arginine increases collagen; the protein providing the main support for bone, cartilage, tendons, connective tissue, and skin. It increases wound breaking strength and improves the rate of wound healing. The demand for arginine in animals occurs in response to physical trauma like; injury, burns, dorsal skin wounds, fractures, physical pain registered by the skin, malnutrition and muscle and bone growth spurts.

Histidine

Histidine is intricately involved in a large number of critical metabolic processes, ranging from the production of red and white blood cells to regulating antibody activity. Histidine also helps to maintain the myelin sheaths which surround and insulate nerves. In particular, Histidine has been found beneficial for the auditory nerves, and a deficiency of this vital amino acid has been noted in cases of nerve deafness.
Histidine also acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, supporting resistant to the effects of stress.
Histidine is naturally found in most animal and vegetable proteins.

Isoleucine

Isoleucine is an essential amino acid found abundantly in most foods. Isoleucine is concentrated in the muscle tissues and is necessary for hemoglobin formation, and in stabilizing and regulating blood sugar and energy levels. A deficiency of isoleucine can produce symptoms similar to those of hypoglycemia. Isoleucine is a branched chain amino acid (BCAA), the others are Isoleucine, Leucine and Valine. They play an important roll in treating injuries and physical stress conditions.

Leucine

Leucine is an essential amino acid which cannot be synthesized but must always be acquired from dietary sources. Leucine stimulates protein synthesis in muscles, and is essential for growth. Leucine also promotes the healing of bones, skin and muscle tissue.
Leucine, and the other branched-chain amino acids, Isoleucine and Valine, are frequently deficient and increased requirements can occur after stress.

Lysine

Lysine is one of the essential amino acids that cannot be manufactured by reptiles, but must be acquired from food sources or supplements. It has an immune enhancing, high doses of Lysine stop viral growth and reproduction through the production of antibodies, hormones and enzymes.
In juveniles lysine is needed for proper growth and bone development. Its aids calcium absorption and maintains nitrogen balance in adults. It is also instrumental in the formation of collagen, which is the basic matrix of the connective tissues, skin, cartilage and bone. Lysine aids in the repair of tissue, and helps to build muscle protein, all of which are important for recovery from injuries. Lysine deficiencies can result in lowered immune function, loss of energy, bloodshot eyes, shedding problems, retarded growth, and reproductive disorders, and increases urinary excretion of calcium. Lysine has no known toxicity.

Methionine

Methionine is an essential amino acid that is not synthesized and must be obtained from food or supplements. It is one of the sulphur containing amino acids and is important in many functions. Through its supply of sulphur, it improves the tone and pliability of the skin, conditions the scales and strengthens claws. The mineral sulphur is involved with the production of protein. Methionine is essential for the absorption and transportation of selenium and zinc in the body. It also acts as a lipotropic agent to prevent excess fat buildup in the liver, and is an excellent chelator of heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium and mercury, binding them and aiding in their excretion.

Phenylalanine

Phenylalanine is one of the amino acids which reptiles cannot manufacture themselfs, but must acquire from food or supplements. Phenylalanine is a precursor of tyrosine, and together they lead to the formation of thyroxine or thyroid hormone, and of epinephrine and norepinephrine which is converted into a neurotransmitter, a brain chemical which transmits nerve impulses. This neurotransmitter is used by the brain to manufacture norepinephrine which promotes mental alertness, memory, and behavior.

Threonine

Threonine, an essential amino acid, is not manufactured by reptiles and must be acquired from food or supplements. It is an important constituent in many proteins and is necessary for the formation of tooth enamel protein, collagen and elastin. It is a precursor to the amino acids glycine and serine. It acts as a lipotropic in controlling fat build-up in the liver.
Nutrients are more readily absorbed when threonine is present. Threonine is an immune stimulant and deficiency has been associated with weakened cellular response and antibody formation.

Tryptophan

Tryptophan, an essential amino acid, is one of the amino acids which reptiles cannot manufacture them self, but most acquire from food or supplements. It is the least abundant in proteins and also easily destroyed by the liver. Tryptophan is necessary for the production of the B-vitamin niacin, which is essential for your brain to manufacture the key neurotransmitters. It helps control hyperactivity, relieves stress, and enhances the release of growth hormones. Tryptophan to control aggressive behavior in some reptiles.

Valine

Valine is one of the amino acids which reptiles cannot for manufacture them self but must acquire from food sources. Valine is found in abundant quantities in most food. Valine has a stimulant effect. Healthy growth depends on it. A deficiency results in a negative hydrogen balance.
Valine can be metabolized to produce energy, which spares glucose.

Non-Essential Amino Acids

Alanine

This nonessential amino acid that can be manufactured by reptiles from other sources as needed. Alanine is one of the simplest of the amino acids and is involved in the energy-producing breakdown of glucose. In conditions of sudden anaerobic energy need, when muscle proteins are broken down for energy, alanine acts as a carrier molecule to take the nitrogen-containing amino group to the liver to be changed to the less toxic urea, thus preventing buildup of toxic products in the muscle cells when extra energy is needed. No deficiency state is known.

Asparaginine

Asparaginine is a nonessential amino acid and structurally similar to aspartic acid, with an additional amino group on the main carbon skeleton. Asparaginine aids in the metabolic functioning of brain and nervous system cells, and may be a mild immune stimulant as well.

Aspartic acid

Aspartic Acid is a nonessential amino acid that the body can make from other sources in sufficient amounts to meet its needs. It is a critical part of the enzyme in the liver that transfers nitrogen-containing amino groups, either in building new proteins and amino acids, or in breaking down proteins and amino acids for energy and detoxifying the nitrogen in the form of urea.
Its ability to increase endurance is thought to be a result of its role in clearing ammonia from the system. Aspartic acid is one of two major excitatory amino acids within the brain (The other is glutamic acid).
Depleted levels of aspartic acid may occur temporarily within certain tissues under stress, but, because the body is able to make its own aspartic acid to replace any depletion, deficiency states do not occur. Aspartic acid is abundant in plants, especially in sprouting seeds. In protein, it exists mainly in the form of its amide, asparagine. Aspartic acid is considered nontoxic.

Carnitine

Carnitine is a dipeptide - an amino acid made from two other aminos, methionine and lysine. It can be synthesized in the liver if sufficient amounts of lysine, B1, B6 and iron are available. Carnitine has been shown to have a major role in the metabolism of fat and by increasing fat utilization. It transfers fatty acids across the membranes of the mitochondria where they can be utilized as sources of energy. It also increases the rate at which the liver uses fats.
Carnitine is stored primarily in the skeletal muscles and heart, where it is needed to transform fatty acids into energy for muscular activity.

Cysteine

Cysteine is a high sulphur containing amino acid synthesized by the liver. It is an important precursor to Glutathione, one of the body's most effective antioxidants and free radical destroyers. Free radicals are toxic waste products of faulty metabolism, radiation and environmental pollutants which oxidize and damage body cells. Glutathione also protects red blood cells from oxidative damage and aids in amino acid transport. It works most effectively when taken in conjunction with vitamin E and selenium.
Through this antioxidant enzyme process, cysteine may contribute to a longer life. It has immune enhancing properties, promotes fat burning and muscle growth and also tissue healing after injury or burns. 8% of the scales consists of cysteine.

Cystine

Cystine is a stable form of the amino acid cysteine. A reptile is capable of converting one to the other as required and in metabolic terms they can be thought of as the same. Both cystine and cysteine are rich in sulphur and can be readily synthesized. Cystine is found abundantly in scale keratin, insulin and certain digestive enzymes.
Cystine or cysteine is needed for proper utilization of vitamin B6. By reducing the body's absorption of copper, cystine protects against copper toxicity, which has been linked to behavioral problems. It is also found helpful in the healing of wounds, and is used to break down mucus deposits in illnesses such as bronchitis and cystic fibrosis.

Gamma aminobutyric acid

Gamma aminobutyric acid is an important amino acid which functions as the most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. It works in partnership with a derivative of Vitamin B-6, and helps control the nerve cells from firing too fast, which would overload the system.

Glutamic acid

Glutamic acid is biosynthesized from a number of amino acids including ornithine and arginine. When aminated, glutamic acid forms the important amino acid glutamine. It can be reconverted back into glutamine when combined with ammonia can create confusion over which amino acid does what.
Glutamic acid (sometimes called glutamate) is a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal cord, and is the precursor to glutathione and Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA). Glutamic acid is also a component of folic acid. After glutamic acid is formed in the brain from glutamine, it then has two key roles. The body uses glutamic acid to fuel the brain and to inhibit neural excitation in the central nervous system. Besides glucose, it is the only compound used for fuel by the brain. The second function is detoxifying ammonia in the brain and removing it. It then reconverts to its original form of glutamine.

Glutamine

Glutamine is an amino acid widely used to maintain good brain functioning. Glutamine is a derivative of glutamic acid which is synthesized from the amino acids arginine, ornithine and proline. Glutamine improves mental alertness and mood. It is found abundantly in animal proteins and needed in high concentrations in serum and spinal fluid. When glutamic acid combines with ammonia, a waste product of metabolic activity, is converted into glutamine.

Glycine

Glycine is an amino acid that is a major part of the pool of amino acids which aid in the synthesis of non essential amino acids in the body. Glycine can be easily formed in the liver or kidneys from Choline and the amino acids Threonine and Serine. Likewise, Glycine can be readily converted back into Serine as needed. Glycine is also one of the few amino acids that can spare glucose for energy by improving glycogen storage.
Glycine is required by the body for the maintenance of the central nervous system, and also plays an important function in the immune system were it is used in the synthesis of other non-essential amino acids. Glycine can reduce gastric acidity, and in higher doses, can stimulate growth hormone release and contribute to wound healing. Glycine comprises up to a third of the collagen and is required for the synthesis of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying molecule in the blood.

Ornithine

Ornithine is made from the amino acid arginine and in turn is a precursor to form glutamic acid, citruline, and proline. Ornithine's value lies in its ability to enhance liver function, protect the liver and detoxify harmful substances. It also helps release a growth hormone when combined with arginine, this growth hormone is also an immune stimulant.
Arginine and ornithine have improved immune responses to bacteria and viruses. Ornithine has been shown to aid in wound healing and support liver regeneration.


Proline

Proline is synthesized from the amino acids glutamine or ornithine. It is one of the main components of collagen, the connective tissue structure that binds and supports all other tissues. Proline improves skin texture but collagen is neither properly formed nor maintained if Vitamin C is lacking.

Pyroglutamate

Pyroglutamate is an amino acid naturally found in vegetables, fruits, and insects. It is also normally present in large amounts in the bone marrow and blood. Pyroglutamate improves memory and learning in rats, but it is not known it has any effect on reptiles.

Serine

Serine is synthesized from the amino acids glycine or threonine. Its production requires adequate amounts of B-7 (niacin), B-6, and folic acid. It is needed for the metabolism of fats and fatty acids, muscle growth and a healthy immune system. It aids in the production of immunoglobulins and antibodies. It is a constituent of brain proteins and nerve coverings. It is important in the formation of cell membranes, involved in the metabolism of purines and pyrimidines, and muscle synthesis.

Taurine

Taurine is one of the most abundant amino acids. It is found in the central nervous system, skeletal muscle and is very concentrated in the brain and heart. It is synthesized from the amino acids methionine and cysteine, in conjunction with vitamin B6. Animal protein is a good source of taurine, as it is not found in vegetable protein. Like magnesium, taurine affects cell membrane electrical excitability by normalizing potassium flow in and out of heart muscle cells. It has been found to have an effect on blood sugar levels similar to insulin. Taurine helps to stabilize cell membranes and seems to have some antioxidant and detoxifying activity. It helps the movement of potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium in and out of cells, which helps generate nerve impulses.Taurine is necessary for the chemical reactions that produce normal vision.

Tyrosine

Tyrosine is an amino acid which is synthesized from phenylalanine. It is a precursor of the important brain neurotransmitters epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine. Dopamine is vital to mental function and seems to play a role in sex drive.
Tyrosine is also used by the thyroid gland to produce one of the major hormones, Thyroxin. This hormone regulates growth rate, metabolic rate, skin health and mental health. It is used in the treatment of anxiety. Animals subjected to stress in the laboratory have been found to have reduced levels of the brain neurotransmitter norepinephrine. Doses of tyrosine prior to stressing the animals prevents reduction of norepinephrine.

Minerals

Macro Minerals

Calcium

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in a reptile and one of the most important. This mineral constitutes about 1.5-2.0 percent of their body weight. Almost all (98 percent) calcium is contained in the bones and the rest in the other tissues or in circulation.
Many other nutrients, vitamin D-3, and certain hormones are important to calcium absorption, function, and metabolism. Phosphorus as well as calcium is needed for normal bones, as are magnesium, silicon, strontium and possibly boron. The ratio of calcium to phosphorus in bones is about 2.5:1; the best proportions of these minerals in the diet for proper metabolism are currently under question.
Calcium works with magnesium in its functions in the blood, nerves, muscles, and tissues, particularly in regulating heart and muscle contraction and nerve conduction. Vitamin D-3 is needed for much calcium (and phosphorus) to be absorbed from the digestive tract.
Maintaining a balanced blood calcium level is essential to life. If there is not enough calcium in the diet to maintain sufficient amounts of calcium in the blood, calcium then will be drawn out of the bones and increase intestinal absorption of available calcium. So even though most of the calcium is in the bones, the blood and cellular concentrations of this mineral are maintained first.
Various factors can improve our calcium absorption. Besides vitamin D-3, vitamins A and C can help support normal membrane transport of calcium. Protein intake helps absorption of calcium, but too much protein may reduce it. Some dietary fat may also help absorption, but high fat may reduce it.
A fast-moving intestinal tract can also reduce calcium absorption. Stress also can diminish calcium absorption, possibly through its effect on stomach acid levels and digestion. Though calcium in the diet improves the absorption of the important vitamin B-12, too much of it may interfere with the absorption of the competing minerals magnesium, zinc, iron, and manganese.
Because of the many complex factors affecting calcium absorption, anywhere from 30-80 percent may end up being excreted. Some may be eliminated in the feces. The kidneys also control calcium blood levels through their filtering and reabsorption functions.

Chloride

Chloride makes up about 0.15 percent of the weight and is found mainly in the extracellular fluid along with sodium. As one of the mineral electrolytes, chloride works closely with sodium and water to help the distribution of body fluids.
Chloride is easily absorbed from the small intestine. It is eliminated through the kidneys, which can also retain chloride as part of their finely controlled regulation of acid-base balance.

Magnesium

Magnesium is a very important essential macro mineral, even though it is only 0.05 percent of the body weight. It is involved in several hundred enzymatic reactions, many of which contribute to production of energy. As with calcium, the bones act as a reservoir for magnesium in times of need. The remaining magnesium is contained in the blood, fluids, and other tissues. The process of digestion and absorption of magnesium is very similar to that of calcium. Diets high in protein or fat, a diet high in phosphorus or calcium (calcium and magnesium can compete), may decrease magnesium absorption.
Usually, about 40-50 percent of the magnesium is absorbed, though this may vary from 25-75 percent depending on stomach acid levels, body needs, and diets. Stress may increase magnesium excretion. The kidneys can excrete or conserve magnesium according to body needs. The intestines can also eliminate excess magnesium in the faeces.

Phosphorous

Phosphorus is the second most abundant element (after calcium) present in a reptile’s body, makes up about 1 percent of the total body weight. It is present in every cell, but 85 percent of the phosphorus is found in the bones. In the bones, phosphorus is present in the phosphate form as the bone salt calcium phosphate in an amount about half that of the total calcium. Both these important minerals are in constant turnover, even in the bone structure.
A reptile uses a variety of mechanisms to control the calcium-phosphorus ratio and metabolism. Phosphorus is absorbed more efficiently than calcium. Nearly 70 percent of phosphorus is absorbed from the intestines, although the rate depends somewhat on the levels of calcium and vitamin D. Most phosphorus is deposited in the bones, the rest is contained in the cells and other tissues. Much is found in the red blood cells. Iron, aluminium, or magnesium, which may all form insoluble phosphates and be eliminated in the faeces. This results in a decrease of phosphorus absorption.
Phosphorus is involved in many functions besides forming bones. Phosphorus is important to the utilization of carbohydrates and fats for energy production and also in protein synthesis for the growth, maintenance, and repair of all tissues and cells. It helps in kidney function and acts as a buffer for acid-base balance in the body. Phosphorus aids muscle contraction, including the regularity of the heartbeat, and is also supportive of proper nerve conduction. This important mineral supports the conversion of niacin and riboflavin to their active coenzyme forms.
There is no known toxicity specific to phosphorus; however, high dietary phosphorus, can readily affect calcium metabolism. Potential calcium deficiency symptoms may be more likely when the phosphorus dosage is very high. Symptoms of phosphorus deficiency may include weakness, weight loss, decreased growth, poor bone development, and symptoms of rachitis may occur in phosphorus-deficient reptiles.

Potassium

Potassium is a very significant mineral, important to both cellular and electrical function. It is one of the main blood minerals called "electrolytes" (the others are sodium and chloride), which means it carries a tiny electrical charge (potential). Potassium is the primary positive ion found within the cells, where 98 percent of potassium is found. Magnesium helps maintain the potassium in the cells, but the sodium and potassium balance is as finely tuned as those of calcium and phosphorus or calcium and magnesium. Potassium is well absorbed from the small intestine, with about 90 percent absorption and is one of the most soluble minerals. Most excess potassium is eliminated in the urine.
Along with sodium, it regulates the water balance and the acid-base balance in the blood and tissues. Potassium is very important in cellular biochemical reactions and energy metabolism; it participates in the synthesis of protein from amino acids in the cell. Potassium also functions in carbohydrate metabolism; it is active in glycogen and glucose metabolism, converting glucose to glycogen that can be stored in the liver for future energy. Potassium is important for normal growth and for building muscle.
Elevations or depletions of this important mineral can cause many problems. Maintaining consistent levels of potassium in the blood and cells is vital to function.
Even with high dosages of potassium, the kidneys will clear any excess, and blood levels will not be increased. Low potassium may impair glucose metabolism. In more severe potassium deficiency, there can be serious muscle weakness, bone fragility, central nervous system changes, and even death.

Silicon

Silicon is another mineral that is not commonly written about as an essential nutrient. It is present in the soil and is actually the most abundant mineral in the earth's crust, as carbon is the most abundant in plant and animal tissue. Silicon is very hard and is found in rock crystals such as quartz or flint. Silicon molecules in the tissues, such as the nails and connective tissue, give them strength and stability. Silicon is present in bone, blood vessels, cartilage, and tendons, helping to make them strong. Silicon is important to bone formation, as it is found in active areas of calcification. It is also found in plant fibres and is probably an important part of their structure. This mineral is able to form long molecules, much the same as is carbon, and gives these complex configurations some durability and strength. Retarded growth and poor bone development is the result of a silicon-deficient diet. Collagen contains silicon, helping hold the body tissues together. This mineral works with calcium to help restore bones.
It deeply penetrates the tissues and help to clear stored toxins. The essential strength and stability this mineral provides to the tissues should give them protection from disease.

Sodium

Sodium is the primary positive ion found in the blood and body fluids; it is also found in every cell although it is mainly extracellular, working closely with potassium, the primary intracellular mineral. Sodium is one of the electrolytes, along with potassium and chloride, and is closely tied in with the movement of water; "where sodium goes, water goes." Sodium chloride is present in solution on a large part of the earth's surface in ocean water. Along with potassium, sodium helps to regulate the fluid balance both within and outside the cells. Through the kidneys, by buffering the blood with a balance of all the positive or negative ions present, these two minerals help control the acid-base balance as well. Sodium and potassium interaction helps to create an electrical potential (charge) that enables muscles to contract and nerve impulses to be conducted. Sodium is also important to hydrochloric acid production in the stomach and is used during the transport of amino acids from the gut into the blood.
Since sodium is needed to maintain blood fluid volume, excessive sodium can lead to increased blood volume, especially when the kidneys do not clear it efficiently.
In the case of sodium, there is more of a concern with toxicity from excesses than with deficiencies.
Sodium deficiency is less common than excess sodium, as this mineral is readily available in all diets, but when it does occur, deficiency can cause problems. The deficiency is usually accompanied by water loss. When sodium and water are lost together, the extracellular fluid volume is depleted, which can cause decreased blood volume, increased blood count and muscle weakness. When sodium is lost alone, water flows into the cells, causing cellular swelling and symptoms of water intoxication. With low sodium, there is also usually poor carbohydrate metabolism.

Sulphur

Sulphur is an interesting non-metallic element that is found mainly as part of larger compounds. Sulphur is present in four amino acids: methionine, an essential amino acid and the nonessential cystine and cysteine and. Sulphur is also present in two B vitamins; thiamine is important to skin and biotin to the scales. Sulphur is also available as various sulphates or sulphides. But overall, sulphur is most important as part of protein.
Sulphur is absorbed from the small intestine primarily as the four amino acids or from sulphates in water, fruits and vegetables. Sulphur is stored in all cells, especially the skin, scales, and nails. Excess amounts are eliminated through the urine or in the faeces.
As part of four amino acids, sulphur performs a number of functions in enzyme reactions and protein synthesis. It is necessary for formation of collagen, the protein found in connective tissue. Sulphur is also present in keratin, which is necessary for the maintenance of the skin, scales, and nails, helping to give strength, shape, and hardness to these protein tissues. There is minimal reason for concern about either toxicity or deficiency of sulphur. No clearly defined symptoms exist with either state. Sulphur deficiency is common with low-protein diets, or with a lack of intestinal bacteria, though none of these seems to cause any problems in regard to sulphur functions and metabolism.
 

Essential Trace Minerals (Trace elements)

Chromium

Chromium is a vital molecule in regulating carbohydrate metabolism by enhancing insulin function for proper use of glucose. Together with two niacin molecules, and three amino acids; glycine, cysteine, and glutamic acid.
Chromium is really considered an "ultra-trace" mineral, since it is needed in such small quantities to perform its essential functions. The blood contains about 20 parts per billion (ppb), a fraction of a microgram. Even though it is in such small concentrations, this mineral is important to a reptile’s health. The kidneys clear any excess from the blood, while much of chromium is eliminated through the faeces. This mineral is stored in many parts, including the skin, fat, muscles and kidneys. Because of the low absorption and high excretion rates of chromium, toxicity is not at all common in reptiles, but it is in amphibians.

Cobalt

Cobalt is another essential mineral needed in very small amounts in the diet.
Cobalt, as part of vitamin B12, is not easily absorbed from the digestive tract. It is stored in the red blood cells and the plasma, as well as in the liver, and kidneys.
As part of vitamin B12, cobalt is essential to red blood cell formation and is also helpful to other cells.
Toxicity can occur from excess inorganic cobalt found as a food contaminant. High dosage may affect the thyroid or cause overproduction of red blood cells, thickened blood, and increased activity in the bone marrow.
Deficiency of cobalt is not really a concern with enough vitamin B12. As cobalt deficiency leads to decreased availability of B12, there is an increase of many symptoms and problems related to B12 deficiency, particularly nerve damage.

Copper

Copper is important as a catalyst in the formation of haemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying molecule. It helps oxidize vitamin C and works with C to form collagen (part of cell membranes and the supportive matrix in muscles and other tissues), especially in the bone and connective tissue. It helps the cross-linking of collagen fibres and thus supports the healing process of tissues and aids in proper bone formation. An excess of copper may increase collagen and lead to stiffer and less flexible tissues.
Copper is found in many enzymes; most important is the cytoplasmic superoxide dismutase. Copper enzymes play a role in oxygen-free radical metabolism, and in this way have a mild anti-inflammatory effect. Copper also functions in certain amino acid conversions. Being essential in the synthesis of phospholipids, copper contributes to the integrity of the myelin sheaths covering nerves. It also aids the conversion of tyrosine to the pigment melanin, which gives scales and skin their colouring. Copper, as well as zinc, is important for converting T3 (triiodothyronine) to T4 (thyroxine), both thyroid hormones. Low copper levels may reduce thyroid functions.
Copper, like most metals, is a conductor of electricity; it helps the nervous system function. It also helps control levels of histamine. Copper in the blood is fixed to the protein cerulosplasmin, and copper is part of the enzyme histaminase, which is involved in the metabolism of histamine.
Problems of copper toxicity may include stress, hyperactivity, nervousness, and discoloration of the skin and scales.
Copper deficiency is commonly found together with iron deficiency. High zinc dosage can lead to lower copper levels and some symptoms of copper deficiency. The reduced red blood cell function and shortened red cell life span can influence energy levels and cause weakness and may also affect tissue health and healing. Weakened immunity, skeletal defects related to bone demineralization, and poor nerve conductivity, might all result from copper depletions. Copper deficiency results in several abnormalities of the immune system, such as reduced cellular immune response, reduced activity of white blood cells and an increased infection rate.

Iodine

Iodine is an essential nutrient for production of thyroid hormones and therefore is required for normal thyroid function. The thyroid hormones, particularly thyroxine, which is 65 percent iodine, are responsible for basal metabolic rate, the reptile’s use of energy. Thyroid is required for cell respiration and the production of energy and further increases oxygen consumption and general metabolism.
The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine, are also needed for normal growth and development, protein synthesis, and energy metabolism. Nerve and bone formation, reproduction, and the condition of the skin, scales, and nails. Thyroid and, thus, iodine also affect the conversion of carotene to vitamin A and of ribonucleic acids to protein; cholesterol synthesis; and carbohydrate absorption.
There is no significant danger of toxicity of iodine from a natural diet, though some care must be taken when supplementing iodine. High iodine dosage, however, may actually reduce thyroxine production and thyroid function. Deficiencies of iodine have been very common, especially in areas where the soil is depleted, as discussed earlier. Several months of iodine deficiency leads to slower metabolism, decreased resistance to infection, and a decrease in sexual energy.

Iron

The primary function of iron is the formation of haemoglobin. Iron is the central core of the haemoglobin molecule, which is the essential oxygen-carrying component of the red blood cell (RBC). In combination with protein, iron is carried in the blood to the bone marrow, where, with the help of copper, it forms haemoglobin. The ferritin and transferrin proteins actually hold and transport the iron. Haemoglobin carries the oxygen molecules throughout the body. Red blood cells pick up oxygen from the lungs and distribute it to the rest of the tissues, all of which need oxygen to survive. Iron's ability to change back and forth between its ferrous and ferric forms allows it to hold and release oxygen. Myoglobin is similar to haemoglobin in that it is an iron-protein compound that holds oxygen and carries it into the muscles, mainly the skeletal muscles and the heart. It provides higher amounts of oxygen to our muscles with increased activity. Myoglobin also acts as an oxygen reservoir in the muscle cells. So muscle performance actually depends on this function of iron, besides the basic oxygenation by haemoglobin through normal blood circulation.
Usually, it takes moderately high amounts over a long period with minimal losses of this mineral to develop any iron toxicity problems.
Iron deficiency occurs fairly commonly when a rapid growth period increases iron needs, which are often not met with additional dietary intake. Females need more iron than males. Symptoms are weight loss from decreased appetite, loss of energy, lowered immunity (a weakened resistance), and may cause a strange symptom; eating and licking inedible objects, such as stones, mud, or glass.

Manganese

Manganese is involved in many enzyme systems-that is, it helps to catalyze many biochemical reactions. There are some biochemical suggestions that manganese is closer to magnesium in more than just name. It is possible that magnesium can substitute for manganese in certain conditions when manganese is deficient.
Manganese activates the enzymes necessary for a reptile to use biotin, thiamine (B1), vitamin C, and choline. It is important for the digestion and utilization of food, especially proteins, through peptidase activity, and it is needed for the synthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids and in glucose metabolism.
Manganese may be one of the least toxic minerals.
Manganese deficiency can lead to sterility, and to infertile eggs or to poor growth in the offspring. There is decreased bone growth, especially in length.

Molybdenum

Molybdenum is a vital part of three important enzyme systems—xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulphite oxidase—and so has a vital role in uric acid formation and iron utilization, in carbohydrate metabolism, and sulphite detoxification as well. Xanthine oxidase (XO) helps in the production of uric acid, an end product of protein (purine) metabolism and may also help in the mobilization of iron from liver reserves. Aldehyde oxidase helps in the oxidation of carbohydrates and other aldehydes, including acetaldehyde produced from ethyl alcohol. Sulphate oxidase helps to detoxify sulphurs.
Animals given large amounts experience weight loss, slow growth, anaemia, or diarrhea, though these effects may be more the result of low levels of copper, a mineral with which molybdenum competes. Molybdenum-deficient diets seem to produce weight loss and decreased life span.

Selenium

Selenium has a variety of functions; its main role is as an antioxidant in the enzyme selenium-glutathione peroxidase. Selenium is part of a nutritional antioxidant system that protects cell membranes and intracellular structural membranes from lipid peroxidation. It is actually the selenocysteine complex that is incorporated into glutathione peroxidase (GP), an enzyme that helps prevent cellular degeneration from the common peroxidase free radicals, such as hydrogen peroxide. GP also aids red blood cell metabolism and prevent chromosome damage in tissue cultures. As an antioxidant, selenium in the form of selenocysteine prevents or slows the biochemical aging process of tissue degeneration and hardening-that is, loss of youthful elasticity. This protection of the tissues and cell membranes is enhanced by vitamin E. Selenium also protects reptiles from the toxic effects of heavy metals and other substances. Selenium may also aid in protein synthesis, growth and development, and fertility, especially in the male. It has been shown to improve sperm production and motility.
High doses of selenium can lead to weight loss, liver and kidney malfunction, and even death if the levels are high enough. With selenium deficiency, there may be increased risk of infections. Many other metals, including cadmium, arsenic, silver, copper, and mercury, are thought to be more toxic in the presence of selenium deficiency.

Zinc

Zinc is involved in a multitude of functions and is part of many enzyme systems. With regard to metabolism, zinc is part of alcohol dehydrogenase, which helps the liver detoxify alcohols (obtained often from eating rotten, high sugar fruits), including ethanol, methanol, ethylene glycol, and retinol (vitamin A). Zinc is also thought to help utilize and maintain levels of vitamin A. Through this action, zinc may help maintain healthy skin cells and thus may be helpful in generating new skin. By helping collagen formation, zinc may also improve wound healing. Zinc is needed for lactate and malate dehydrogenases, both important in energy production. Zinc is a cofactor for the enzyme alkaline phosphatase, which helps contribute phosphates to bones. Zinc is also part of bone structure. Zinc is important to male sex organ function and reproductive fluids. It is in high concentration in the eye, liver, and muscle tissues suggesting its functions in those areas.
Zinc in carboxypeptidase (a digestive enzyme) helps in protein digestion. Zinc is important for synthesis of nucleic acids, both DNA and RNA. Zinc has also been shown to support immune function.
Zinc is fairly non-toxic. There are many symptoms and decreased functions due to zinc deficiency. It may cause slowed growth or slow sexual behaviour. Lowered resistance and increased susceptibility to infection may occur with zinc deficiency, which is related to a decreased cellular immune response. Sensitivity and reactions to environmental chemicals may be exaggerated in a state of zinc deficiency, as many of the important detoxification enzyme functions may be impaired.
Reptiles with zinc deficiency may show poor appetite and slow development. Dwarfism and a total lack of sexual function may occur with serious zinc deficiency. Fatigue is common. Sterility may result from zinc deficiency. Birth defects have been associated with zinc deficiency during pregnancy in experimental animals. The offspring showed reduced growth patterns.

Other Trace minerals

Boron

Boron is an important trace mineral necessary for the proper absorption and utilization of calcium for maintaining bone density and the prevention of loss of bone mass. It possibly affects calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus balance and the mineral movement and makeup of the bones by regulating the hormones.

Fluoride

Fluoride helps strengthen the crystalline structure of bones. The calcium fluoride salt forms a fluorapatite matrix, which is stronger and less soluble than other calcium salts and therefore is not as easily reabsorbed into circulation to supply calcium needs. In bones, fluoride reduces loss of calcium and thereby may reduce osteoporosis. No other functions of fluoride are presently known, though it has been suggested to have a role in growth, in iron absorption, and in the production of red blood cells.
Toxicity from fluoride is definitely a potential problem. As stated, fluoridated water must be closely monitored to keep the concentration at about 1 ppm. At 8 to about 20 ppm, initial tissue sclerosis will occur, especially in the bones and joints. At over 20 ppm, much damage can occur, including decreased growth and cellular changes, especially in the metabolically active organs such as the liver, kidneys, and reproductive organs. More than 50 ppm of fluoride intake can be fatal. Animals eating extra fluoride in grains, vegetables or in water have been shown to have bone lesions. Fat and carbohydrate metabolism has also been affected. There are many other concerns about fluoride toxicity, including bone malformations.
Sodium fluoride is less toxic than most other fluoride salts. In cases of toxicity, extra calcium will bind with the fluoride, making a less soluble and less active compound.
Fluoride deficiency is less of a concern. It is possible, that traces of fluoride are essential, but it is not clear whether it is a natural component of the tissues. Low fluoride levels may correlate with a higher amount of bone fractures, but that is usually in the presence of osteoporosis.

Germanium

The trace mineral germanium itself may be needed in small; however, research has not yet shown this. It is found in the soil, in foods, and in many plants, such as aloe vera, garlic, and ginseng. The organo-germanium does not release the mineral germanium to the tissues for specific action, but is absorbed, acts, and is eliminated as the entire compound.

Lithium

It is not yet known what particular function of lithium may make it an essential nutrient. It is thought to stabilize serotonin transmission in the nervous system; it influences sodium transport; and it may even increase lymphocytic (white blood cell) proliferation and depress the suppressor cell activity, thus strengthening the immune system.
Deficiency of lithium is not really known. Symptoms of lithium toxicity include diarrhea, thirst, increased urination, and muscle weakness. Skin eruptions may also occur. With further toxicity, staggering, seizures, kidney damage, coma, and even death may occur.

Nickel

The biological function of nickel is still somewhat unclear. Nickel is found in the body in highest concentrations in the nucleic acids, particularly RNA, and is thought to be somehow involved in protein structure or function. It may activate certain enzymes related to the breakdown or utilization of glucose. Low nickel can lead to decreased growth, dermatitis, pigment changes, decreased reproduction capacities, and compromised liver function.

Rubidium

There are currently no known essential functions of rubidium. In studies with mice, rubidium has helped decrease tumour growth, possibly by replacing potassium in cell transport mechanisms or by rubidium ions attaching to the cancer cell membranes. Rubidium may have a tranquilizing or hypnotic effect in some animals.
There is no known deficiency or toxicity for rubidium.

Strontium

Strontium may help improve the cell structure and mineral matrix of the bones, adding strength and helping to prevent soft bones, though it is not known if low levels of strontium causes these problems.
There have been no cases of known toxicity from natural strontium. Strontium deficiency may correlate with decreased growth, poor calcification of the bones.

Tin

If it has a function, it may be related to protein structure or oxidation and reduction reactions, though tin is generally a poor catalyst. Tin may interact with iron and copper, particularly in the gut, and so inhibit absorption.
Though tin is considered a mildly toxic mineral, there are no known serious diseases. Studies in rats showed mainly a slightly shortened life span. There are no known problems from tin deficiency.

Vanadium

Not much is known about vanadium function. Vanadium seems to be involved in catecholamine and lipid metabolism. It has been shown to have an effect in reducing the production of cholesterol. Other research involves its role in calcium metabolism, in growth, reproduction, blood sugar regulation, and red blood cell production. The enzyme-stimulation role of vanadium may involve it in bone formation and, through the production of coenzyme A, in fat metabolism.
Vanadium has been thought to be essentially non-toxic, possibly because of poor absorption. In reptiles, vanadium deficiency causes some problems with the scales and shedding, bone development, and reproduction.

Toxic Trace Minerals

Aluminium

Aluminium has only recently been considered a problem mineral. Though it is not very toxic in normal levels, neither has it been found to be essential. Aluminium is very abundant in the earth and in the sea. It is present in only small amounts in animal and plant tissues. The best way to prevent aluminium build-up is to avoid the sources of aluminium. Some tap waters contain aluminium; this can be checked. Avoiding aluminium water dishes and replacing it with stainless steel, ceramic, or plastic is a good idea.

Arsenic

Despite arsenic's reputation as a poison, it actually has fairly low toxicity in comparison with some other metals. In fact, it has been shown to be essential animals. Organic arsenic as and elemental arsenic both found naturally in the earth and in foods do not readily produce toxicity. In fact, they are handled fairly easily and eliminated by the kidneys. The inorganic arsenites or trivalent forms of arsenic, such as arsenic trioxide seem to create the problems. They accumulate in the body, particularly in the skin, scales, and nails, but also in internal organs. Arsenic can accumulate when kidney function is decreased. Luckily, absorption of arsenic is fairly low, so most is eliminated in the faeces and some in the urine.
In some studies, arsenic has been shown to promote longevity in rats.

Cadmium

Like lead, it is an underground mineral that did not enter our air, food, and water in significant amounts until it was mined as part of zinc deposits. As cadmium and zinc are found together in natural deposits, so are they similar in structure and function. Cadmium may actually displace zinc in some of its important enzymatic and organ functions; thus, it interferes with these functions or prevents them from being completed. The zinc-cadmium ratio is very important, as cadmium toxicity and storage are greatly increased with zinc deficiency, and good levels of zinc protect against tissue damage by cadmium. The refinement of grains reduces the zinc-cadmium ratio, so zinc deficiency and cadmium toxicity are more likely when the diet is high in refined grains.
Besides faecal losses, mainly the kidneys excrete it. This mineral is stored primarily in the liver and kidneys. In rat studies, higher levels of cadmium are associated with an increase in heart size, higher blood pressure, progressive atherosclerosis, and reduced kidney function. And in rats, cadmium toxicity is worse with zinc deficiency and reduced with higher zinc intake.
Cadmium appears to depress some immune functions, mainly by reducing host resistance to bacteria and viruses. Cadmium also affects the bones. It was associated with weak bones that lead to deformities, especially of the spine, or to more easily broken bones.

Lead

The heavy metal lead is the most common toxic mineral, it is the worst and most widespread pollutant, though luckily not the most toxic; cadmium and mercury are worse. Though this is not completely clear, lead most likely interferes with functions performed by essential minerals such as calcium, iron, copper, and zinc. Lead does interrupt several red blood cell enzymes. Especially in brain chemistry, lead may create abnormal function by inactivating important zinc-, copper-, and iron-dependent enzymes. Lead affects both the brain and the peripheral nerves and can displace calcium in bone. Lead also lowers host resistance to bacteria and viruses, and thus allows an increase in infections.
Calcium and magnesium reduce lead absorption. Iron, copper, and zinc also do this. With low mineral intake, lead absorption and potential toxicity are increased.
Algin, as from kelp (seaweed) or the supplement sodium alginate, helps to bind lead and other heavy metals in the gastrointestinal tract and carry them to elimination and reduce absorption. With this, though, essential vitamins and minerals, such as the Bs, iron, calcium, zinc, copper, and chromium, help decrease lead absorption.

Mercury

Mercury or "quicksilver," is a shiny liquid metal that is fairly toxic, though the metallic mercury is less so. Especially a problem is methyl or ethyl mercury, or mercuric chloride, which is very poisonous.
Some mercury is retained in the tissues, mainly in the kidneys, which store about 50 percent of the body mercury. The blood, bones, liver, spleen, brain, and fat tissue also hold mercury. This potentially toxic metal does get into the brain and nerve tissue, so central nervous system symptoms may develop. But mercury is also eliminated daily through the urine and faeces. Mercury has no known essential functions and probably affects the inherent protein structure, which may interfere with functions relating to protein production. Mercury may also interfere with some functions of selenium, and can be an immunosuppressant.
Algin can decrease absorption of mercury, especially inorganic mercury. Selenium binds both inorganic and methyl mercury; mercury selenide is formed and excreted in faecal matter. Selenium is, for many reasons, an important nutrient; it does seem to protect against heavy metal toxicity.

Vitamins

Water Soluble Vitamins

Biotin

Synonyms: bios, vitamin B₈, vitamin H, protective factor X, and coenzyme R.

Biotin is a water-soluble vitamin and member of the B-complex family. Biotin is an essential nutrient that is required for cell growth and for the production of fatty acids. Biotin also plays a central role in carbohydrate and protein metabolism and is essential for the proper utilization of the other B-complex vitamins. Biotin contributes to healthy skin and scales. A biotin deficiency is rare, as biotin is easily synthesized in the intestines by bacteria, usually in amounts far greater than are normally require for good health. Those at highest risk for biotin deficiency are reptiles with digestive problems that can interfere with normal intestinal absorption, and those treated with antibiotics or sulfa drugs, which can inhibit the growth of the intestinal bacteria that produce biotin.

Folic Acid

Synonyms: vitamin M and vitamin B₉

Folic Acid is a water-soluble nutrient belonging to the B-complex family. The name folic acid is derived from the Latin word "folium", so chosen since this essential nutrient was first extracted from green leafy vegetables, or foliage. Among its various important roles, folic acid is a vital coenzyme required for the proper synthesis the nucleic acids that maintain the genetic codes and insure healthy cell division. Adequate levels of folic acid are essential for energy production and protein metabolism, for the formulation of red blood cells, and for the proper functioning of the intestinal tract.
Folic acid deficiency affects all cellular functions, but most importantly it reduces the reptile's ability to repair damaged tissues and grow new cells. Tissues with the highest rate of cell replacement, such as red blood cells, are affected first. Folic acid deficiency symptoms include diarrhea, poor nutrient absorption and malnutrition leading to stunted growth and weakness.

Hesperidin

Synonyms: vitamin P

Hesperidin is one of the bioflavonoids, naturally occurring nutrients usually found in association with Vitamin C. The bioflavonoids, sometimes called Vitamin P, were found to be the essential component in correcting this bruising tendency and improving the permeability and integrity of the capillary lining. These bioflavonoids include Hesperidin, Citrin, Rutin, Flavones, Flavonals, Calechin, and Quercetin.
Hesperidin deficiency has been linked with abnormal capillary leaking causing weakness. Supplemental Hesperidin may also help reduce excess swelling in the limbs due to fluid accumulation. Like other bioflavonoids, hesperidin works together with Vitamin C and other bioflavonoids. No signs of toxicity have been observed with normal dosage.

Vitamin B₁

Synonyms: thiamine

Vitamin B-1 is a nutrient with a critical role in maintaining the central nervous system. Adequate thiamine levels can dramatically affect physiological wellbeing. Conversely, inadequate levels of B1 can lead to eye weakness and loss of physical coordination.
Vitamin B1 is required for the production of hydrochloric acid, for forming blood cells, and for maintaining healthy circulation. It also plays a key role in converting carbohydrates into energy, and in maintaining good muscle tone of the digestive system.
Like all the B-vitamins, B-1 is a water-soluble nutrient that cannot be stored in the body, but must be replenished on a daily basis. B-1 is most effective when given in a balanced complex of the other B vitamins.
A chronic deficiency of thiamine will lead to damages of the central nervous system. Thiamine levels can be affected in combination with antibiotics and sulfa drugs. A diet high in carbohydrates can also increase the need for B1.

Vitamin B₂

Synonyms: Riboflavin

Vitamin B-2 is an easily absorbed, water-soluble micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health. Like the other B vitamins, riboflavin supports energy production by aiding in the metabolization of fats, carbohydrates and proteins. Vitamin B-2 is also required for red blood cell formation and respiration, antibody production, and for regulating growth and reproduction. Riboflavin is known to increase energy levels and aid in boosting immune system functions. It also plays a key role in maintaining healthy scales, skin and nails. A deficiency of vitamin B-2 may be indicated by the appearance of skin and shedding problems. Gravid females need Vitamin B-2, as it is critical for the proper growth and development of the eggs.

Vitamin B₃

Synonyms: Niacin, Niacinamide and Nicotinic Acid

Vitamin B-3 is an essential nutrient required by all animals for the proper metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, as well as for the production of hydrochloric acid for digestion. B-3 also supports proper blood circulation, healthy skin, and aids in the functioning of the central nervous system. Because of its role in supporting the higher functions of the brain and cognition. Lastly, adequate levels of B-3 are vital for the proper synthesis of insulin, and the sex hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone.
A deficiency in vitamin B-3 can result in a disorder characterized by malfunctioning of the nervous system, diarrhea, and skin- and shedding problems.

Vitamin B₅

Synonyms: Pantothenic acid

Pantothenic acid is a water-soluble B vitamin that cannot be stored in the body but must be replaced daily, either from diet or from supplements.
Pantothenic acids' most important function is as an essential component in the production of coenzyme A, a vital catalyst that is required for the conversion of carbohydrates, fats, and protein into energy. Pantothenic acid is also referred to as an antistress vitamin due to its vital role in the formation of various adrenal hormones, steroids, and cortisone, as well as contributing to the production of important brain neuro-transmitters. B-5 is required for the production of cholesterol, bile, vitamin D, red blood cells, and antibodies.
Lack of B5 can lead to a variety of symptoms including skin disorders, digestive problems and muscle cramps.

Vitamin B₆

Synonyms: Pyridoxine

Vitamin B-6 is a water-soluble nutrient that cannot be stored in the body, but must be obtained daily from either dietary sources or supplements.
Vitamin B-6 is an important nutrient that supports more vital functions than any other vitamin. This is due to its role as a coenzyme involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Vitamin B-6 is also responsible for the manufacture of hormones, red blood cells, neurotransmitters and enzymes. Vitamin B-6 is required for the production of serotonin, a brain neurotransmitter that controls appetite, sleep patterns, and sensitivity to pain. A deficiency of vitamin B-6 can quickly lead to a profound malfunctioning of the central nervous system.
Among its many benefits, vitamin B-6 is recognized for helping to maintain healthy immune system functions.

Vitamin B₁₂

Synonyms: Cobalamin and Cyanocobalamin

Vitamin B-12 is a water-soluble compound of the B vitamin family with a unique difference. Unlike the other B-vitamins which cannot be stored, but which must be replaced daily, vitamin B12 can be stored for long periods in the liver and kidneys.
Vitamin B-12 is a particularly important coenzyme that is required for the proper synthesis of DNA, which controls the healthy formation of new cells throughout the body. B-12 also supports the action of vitamin C, and is necessary for the proper digestion and absorption of foods, for protein synthesis, and for the normal metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. Additionally, vitamin B-12 prevents nerve damage by contributing to the formation of nerve cells insulators. B-12 also maintains fertility, and helps promote normal growth and development.
Since vitamin B-12 can be easily stored in the reptile’s body, and is only required in tiny amounts, symptoms of severe deficiency usually take time to appear. When symptoms do surface, it is likely that deficiency was due to digestive disorders or malabsorption rather than to poor diet. The source of B-12 in herbivorous reptiles is not known, since B-12 only comes from animal sources.
Due to its role in healthy cell formation, a deficiency of B-12 disrupts the formation of red blood cells, leading to reduced numbers of poorly formed red cells. Symptoms include loss of appetite. B-12 deficiency can lead to improper formation of nerve cells, resulting in irreversible neurological damage.

Vitamin C

Synonyms: ascorbic acid

Vitamin C is powerful water-soluble antioxidant that is vital for the growth and maintenance of all body tissues. Though easily absorbed by the intestines, vitamin C cannot be stored in the body, and is excreted in the urine. Reptiles are able to synthesize their need of vitamin C, unlike humans, along with apes and guinea pigs. One of vitamin C's most vital roles is in the production of collagen, an important cellular component of connective tissues, muscles, tendons, bones, scales and skin. Collagen is also required for the repair of blood vessels, bruises, and broken bones.
This easily destroyed nutrient also protects us from the ravages of free radicals, destroying cell membranes on contact and damaging DNA strands, leading to degenerative diseases. The antioxidant activity of vitamin C can also protect reptiles from the damaging effects of radiation. Vitamin C also aids in the metabolization of folic acid, regulates the uptake of iron, and is required for the conversion of some amino acids. The hormone responsible for sleep, pain control and well being, also requires adequate supplies of vitamin C. A deficiency of ascorbic acid can impair the production of collagen and lead to retarded growth, reduced immune response, and increased susceptibility to infections.
 

Fat Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin A

Synonyms: retinol (=preformed vitamin A)

Vitamin A is a vital fat-soluble nutrient and antioxidant that can maintain healthy skin and confer protection against diseases. Vitamin A is commonly found in two forms; as preformed vitamin A (retinol) and as provitamin A, or beta-carotene.
Vitamin A deficiency can lead to blindness and defective formation of bones and scales. In addition to promoting good vision, other recognized major benefits of vitamin A include its ability to boost the immune system, speed recovery from infections, promote wound healing and normal shedding.

Vitamin D₃

Synonyms: cholecalciferol

Vitamin D-3 is required for the proper regulation and absorption of the essential minerals calcium and phosphorus. Vitamin D-3 can be produced photochemically by the action of sunlight or ultraviolet light from the precursor sterol 7-dehydrocholesterol which is present in the epidermis or skin of most higher animals. Adequate levels of Vitamin D-3 are required for the proper absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the small intestines. Vitamin D-3 further supports and regulates the use of these minerals for the growth and development of the bones and teeth. Because of this vital link, adequate intake of Vitamin D-3 is critically important for the proper mineralization of the bones in developing reptiles. Vitamin D-3 also aids in the prevention and treatment of metabolic bone disease and hypocalcemia in adults.
A prolonged Vitamin D-3 deficiency may result in rachitis, a bone deformity, and in softening of the bone tissue. Ultra violet rays (in the UVB range) acting directly upon the skin can synthesis vitamin D-3, so exposure to sunlight brief but regular is usually an effective way to for assure adequate levels of Vitamin D-3.
Since the body can endogenously produce vitamin D-3 and since it is retained for long periods of time by vertebrate tissue, it is difficult to determine with precision the minimum daily requirements for this seco-steroid. The requirement for vitamin D is also known to be dependent on the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the diet, the physiological stage of development, age, sex and degree of exposure to the sun (geographical location). High levels of vitamin D-3 can be toxic and have the same effects as a deficiency.

Vitamin E

Synonyms: tocopherol

Vitamin E functions as a powerful antioxidant to protect fatty tissues from free radical damage. Free radicals are extremely dangerous and reactive oxygen compounds that are constantly being produced from a variety of natural sources such as radiation and the breakdown of proteins in the body. Left unchecked, free radicals course rupturing cell membranes, causing massive damage to skin, connective tissues and cells.
Vitamin E also plays an important reproduction and muscle contractions.

Vitamin K

Synonyms: Menadione

Vitamin K is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that is required for the regulation of normal blood clotting functions. Dietary vitamin K is found primarily in the form of dark leafy vegetables, but most of the needs for this micronutrient are met by micro organisms that synthesize vitamin K in the intestinal tract.
Vitamin K's main function is in to synthesize a protein vital for blood clotting. Vitamin K also aids in converting glucose into glycogen for storage in the liver, and may also play a role in forming bone formation. Vitamin K deficiency can result in impaired blood clotting and internal bleeding. A deficiency of vitamin K can be caused by use of antibiotics, which can inhibit the growth of the intestinal micro organisms required for the synthesis of vitamin K.

Pro-Vitamins

Provitamins are substances which are transformed to vitamins in the body.

7-dehydrocholesterol

7-dehydrocholesterol (sometimes known as provitamin D₃) is a chemical that, in the presence of ultraviolet light, is converted by the body to previtamin D₃ which is then isomerized into Vitamin D₃.

Beta Carotene

Beta-Carotene is an exciting and powerful fat-soluble antioxidant with tremendous ability to neutralize free radicals and fight infectious diseases. Beta-carotene is also referred to as provitamin A because in its natural form it is not readily available for use in reptiles. When there is need for extra vitamin A, beta carotene undergoes a transformation as powerful liver enzymes split each molecule of beta carotene to form two molecules of vitamin A. This unique feature enables beta carotene to be non-toxic at high doses whereas vitamin A can produce toxic effects in relatively low doses. In addition to promoting good vision, beta-carotene also boosts immune functions, speeds recovery from infections and promotes wound healing.

Enzymes

Protease

Protease is responsible for digesting proteins in the food, which is probably one of the most difficult substances to metabolize. Because of this, protease is considered to be one of the most important enzymes. If the digestive process is incomplete, undigested protein can wind up in the circulatory system, as well as in other parts of the body.

Amylase

Amylase is a group of enzymes that are present in saliva, pancreatic juice, and parts of plants and catalyze the hydrolysis of starch to sugar to produce carbohydrate derivatives. Amylase, also called diastase, is responsible for digesting carbohydrates in the food. It hydrolyzes starch, glycogen, and dextrin to form in all three instances glucose, maltose, and limit-dextrin. Salivary amylase is known as ptyalin. Ptyalin begins polysaccharide digestion in the mouth; the process is completed in the small intestine by the pancreatic amylase, sometimes called amylopsin.

Lipase

Lipase is an enzyme capable of degrading lipid molecules. The bulk of dietary lipids are a class called triacylglycerols and are attacked by lipases to yield simple fatty acids and glycerol, molecules which can permeate the membranes of the stomach and small intestine for use by the body.

Cellulase

Cellulase is included to break down plant fibre (cellulose). Cellulase is actually a complex consisting of three distinct enzymes which together convert cellulose to glucose. Without it plant fibre passes through undigested.

Probiotics

Probiotics are friendly bacteria found in the mouth and intestines of healthy reptiles. These microorganisms help defend against invading bacteria and yeasts. Probiotic bacteria contribute to gastrointestinal health by providing a synergistic environment and producing health promoting substances including some vitamins. They can regulate bowel movements and halt diarrhea while at the same time enhancing the immune system. The use of antibiotics kills the beneficial and the harmful bacteria. Supplemental replenishment with probiotics can quickly return the flora balance to normal, thus preventing many of the common side effects associated with antibiotic treatment.